Mapmakers’ instructional map from 1793

One of several examples from Jørgen Henrik Rawert’s book Forelæsninger over den geometriske, trigonometriske og militaire Landmaaling tilligemed Nivelleringen (Lectures on geometry, trigonometry and the military surveying, as well as levelling) — the book that changed Scandinavian mapmaking.

Published in Copenhagen in 1793, this instruction manual was the first of its kind: a scientific approach to mapping. The Danish had used triangulation and other methods of mathematical surveying earlier, and with great results. However, these were large-scale projects supervised by university staff. The resulting maps covered areas of special attention, such as dangerous coastlines or international borders.

Local army outposts also produced maps. Strategically important maps, too, but they were still made the old way: partly from memory, with varying scales or perspectives often in the same map. Most effort went into the ornate lettering and cartouches — and the mountains, naturalistically drawn as seen from the ground. Beautiful as they were, they were by no means accurate.

Rawert’s book explains clearly but in detail the basics of triangulation and geometry as a basis for mapmaking. His book was not only included in the curriculum for future classes at the military academies of Denmark-Norway, but also, fresh off the press, sent to every army outpost throughout the kingdom.

Within a few years, maps were considerably improved, drawn to scale and using a standard set of legends and markers. Consequently, this book marks the emergence of good, reliable and standardised maps of even far-away parts of Denmark-Norway.

This template map shows a fantasy landscape, containing all the useful examples. Second lieutenant Rawert, stationed in Denmark for years but originally born in Norway, chose the typically varied Scandinavian terrain as examples: Steep mountains cut by fjords and river valleys, dotted with pine and fir forests. His drawing style, made mandatory throughout the army, still makes it easy to date old army maps as before or after 1793. Or, before or after Rawert.